History, Principles, Characteristics and Famous Buildings
Introduction
Bauhaus architecture is associated with one of the most influential developments in twentieth-century architecture. The Bauhaus was founded in Germany in 1919 by architect Walter Gropius, initially in Weimar. It later moved to Dessau and finally Berlin before closing in 1933 under political pressure from the Nazi regime. During its short existence, the Bauhaus developed an interdisciplinary approach that connected architecture, art, craft, design and industrial production.
The term “Bauhaus architecture” is often used to describe buildings with geometric forms, flat roofs, large areas of glazing, minimal ornament and modern materials such as steel, glass and reinforced concrete. These characteristics are important, but they do not tell the whole story.
The Bauhaus was first and foremost a school and experimental design institution. Architecture was part of its original vision, but a separate architecture department was not established until 1927. Its architectural ideas also changed significantly under its three directors: Walter Gropius, Hannes Meyer and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.
Understanding this distinction makes Bauhaus architecture more meaningful. Rather than copying a visual formula of white walls, flat roofs and ribbon windows, architects can study the underlying questions that the Bauhaus explored: How should buildings respond to use? How can construction technology influence form? How can design become more economical? How can architecture respond to modern social needs?
What Is Bauhaus Architecture?
Bauhaus architecture is the architectural expression of the ideas developed by the Bauhaus school, a German interdisciplinary design institution active from 1919 to 1933. It emphasized the relationship between function, construction, materials, technology, art, craft and modern industrial production.
The Bauhaus developed in a period of rapid industrialization, social change and technological development. Its designers questioned the continued use of historical architectural decoration and explored new relationships between structure, space, materials and everyday life.
UNESCO describes the Bauhaus and its associated buildings as fundamental representatives of Classical Modernism. The World Heritage property demonstrates the use of modern materials including reinforced concrete, glass and steel, together with construction approaches such as skeleton structures and glass façades.
Is Bauhaus an architectural style?
It is more accurate to describe Bauhaus as a school, educational philosophy and design movement whose ideas contributed to Modern architecture than to treat it as a single fixed architectural style.
The Bauhaus-Archiv specifically explains that there was never a standardized “Bauhaus architecture.” The architectural approaches of Gropius, Meyer and Mies differed considerably.
Therefore, terms such as Bauhaus architecture, Bauhaus design and Bauhaus style should be used carefully.
Quick Characteristics of Bauhaus Architecture
| Characteristic | Architectural Meaning | Typical Expression |
|---|---|---|
| Functional planning | Space is organized around use | Efficient circulation and zoning |
| Geometric forms | Basic forms clarify composition | Cubes, rectangles and planes |
| Minimal ornament | Decorative historical motifs are reduced | Plain façades |
| Modern materials | Materials respond to contemporary construction | Steel, glass and reinforced concrete |
| Structural clarity | Structure and enclosure can be visually distinguished | Steel frames and glazed façades |
| Large glazing | Maximizes daylight and visual connection | Curtain walls and large windows |
| Industrial production | Design considers manufacturing and standardization | Repetition and prefabricated components |
| Interdisciplinary design | Architecture interacts with other design disciplines | Furniture, lighting, graphics and interiors |
| Social function | Architecture can address collective needs | Housing and public buildings |
| Spatial flexibility | Structure can permit adaptable interiors | Open or relatively unobstructed spaces |
These characteristics should be understood as design tendencies rather than mandatory rules.
Historical Background of the Bauhaus
Germany after the First World War
The Bauhaus emerged during a period of major political, economic and cultural transformation in Germany.
Traditional academic approaches to art and architecture were being questioned, while industrialization was changing how products and buildings could be manufactured. Architects and designers were increasingly interested in creating forms appropriate to modern technology and modern life.
Walter Gropius sought to establish a new educational model in which artistic disciplines and craftsmanship could work together.
Foundation of the Bauhaus in Weimar
Walter Gropius founded the State Bauhaus in Weimar in 1919. The institution brought together the former Grand Ducal Saxon Academy of Fine Art and the School of Arts and Crafts. Its educational program combined theoretical study with practical workshop training.
The early Bauhaus curriculum included:
- Form studies
- Colour theory
- Material studies
- Craft workshops
- Painting
- Sculpture
- Metalwork
- Woodworking
- Weaving
- Typography
- Stage design
The preliminary course, or Vorkurs, became an important part of the educational model. Students explored form, colour, material properties and composition before progressing into specialist workshops.
This educational system is one of the most important contributions of Bauhaus to architectural education.
Bauhaus Moves to Dessau
Political opposition and financial pressure contributed to the closure of the Weimar Bauhaus in 1925. The school moved to the industrial city of Dessau, where the local government offered support for its continuation.
Dessau became the most important period in the architectural history of the Bauhaus.
Walter Gropius designed the new Bauhaus Building, completed in 1926. The building brought together different functional components, including workshops, teaching spaces, administrative areas, an auditorium and student accommodation.
The building itself became an architectural demonstration of the school’s ideas.
Bauhaus Building in Dessau
Architect
Walter Gropius
Location
Dessau, Germany
Date
1925–1926
Importance
The Bauhaus Building is one of the most recognizable works associated with the movement.
The building consists of interconnected volumes with different functions. Its workshop wing has a large steel-and-glass façade, while other parts of the complex use different façade treatments according to their functions.
The Stiftung Bauhaus Dessau describes the building as consisting of distinct parts that vary in height and size. A two-storey bridge connects major sections, while the studio building contained 28 student and young-master living units, each approximately 24 square metres.
The building’s steel-and-glass workshop façade is particularly significant because the glazing visually separates the building enclosure from the structural system.
This is an important architectural lesson:
The façade does not always have to visually behave like a load-bearing wall.
The separation of structure and enclosure opened new possibilities for daylight, transparency and spatial organization.
The Three Directors of the Bauhaus
One of the most important ways to understand Bauhaus architecture is to study its three directors.
| Director | Period | Major Architectural Emphasis |
|---|---|---|
| Walter Gropius | 1919–1928 | Integration of art, craft, technology and industrial production |
| Hannes Meyer | 1928–1930 | Functional, social and economically oriented architecture |
| Ludwig Mies van der Rohe | 1930–1933 | Architecture, structure, spatial order and disciplined formal composition |
The chronology is documented by the Stiftung Bauhaus Dessau.
Walter Gropius
Gropius established the Bauhaus and shaped its interdisciplinary philosophy.
His approach emphasized collaboration between artistic disciplines, craft and industrial technology. His architecture explored new relationships between structure, materials, construction and functional organization.
The Fagus Factory and Bauhaus Building are particularly important to understanding his development.
Hannes Meyer
Hannes Meyer became director in 1928.
His approach placed greater emphasis on social needs, users and functional requirements. The Bauhaus-Archiv notes that Meyer considered identifying users’ needs fundamental to architectural training and made artistic concerns subordinate to those needs.
This period is particularly important because it demonstrates that Bauhaus architecture cannot simply be reduced to visual minimalism.
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
Mies became director in 1930 and remained in charge until the Bauhaus closed in 1933.
Under Mies, architecture became increasingly dominant within the school. Workshop activity was reduced, while architectural construction and materials received greater emphasis.
His later work became enormously influential in Modern architecture, although many of his famous buildings should be understood as part of the broader Modern Movement rather than automatically labelled “Bauhaus architecture.”
Main Principles of Bauhaus Architecture
1. Function and Use
Bauhaus design placed strong emphasis on the purpose of a building or object.
Architectural planning begins with questions such as:
- Who will use the building?
- What activities occur inside?
- How should users move through it?
- What spaces require privacy?
- Which spaces need daylight?
- How should structure support the program?
- How can construction be made efficient?
This approach helped move architectural design away from purely decorative composition toward functional analysis.
2. Simplicity and Reduction
Bauhaus buildings commonly avoid applied historical ornament.
However, simplicity does not mean that the architecture lacks design.
Instead, visual interest is produced through:
- Proportion
- Massing
- Repetition
- Structural rhythm
- Light and shadow
- Material contrast
- Window composition
- Spatial relationships
A simple façade can therefore contain considerable architectural complexity.
3. Geometric Forms
Bauhaus architecture commonly employs basic geometric forms.
Typical elements include:
- Rectangular volumes
- Cubic masses
- Horizontal planes
- Vertical planes
- Repeated structural bays
- Linear windows
- Flat or low-profile roofs
These geometries can make a building visually legible and can correspond with rational structural and functional organization.
4. Modern Materials
Steel, reinforced concrete and glass became important materials within Bauhaus-associated architecture.
The significance was not simply that these materials were “modern.”
They provided new architectural possibilities:
- Larger openings
- Longer spans
- Lighter façades
- Greater transparency
- Flexible internal arrangements
- New structural systems
- Industrialized construction
UNESCO identifies reinforced concrete, glass, steel, skeleton construction and glass façades among the technologies associated with the Bauhaus World Heritage sites.
5. Structure and Enclosure
Bauhaus architecture helped popularize a clearer distinction between structural systems and external enclosure.
The Dessau Bauhaus Building is an important example.
The structural frame carries the building while extensive glazing forms an external skin around parts of the building.
This idea became increasingly important to twentieth-century Modern architecture.
6. Natural Light
Large windows and glazed façades were often used to improve daylight.
The workshop wing of the Dessau Bauhaus Building is especially important because its extensive glazing allowed the interior workshops to receive substantial natural light while visually exposing the activities within.
For architects, the lesson is broader than simply using large windows.
Glazing should be considered together with:
- Solar orientation
- Heat gain
- Glare
- Ventilation
- Privacy
- Energy performance
- Shading
- Local climate
A large glass façade is not automatically environmentally appropriate.
7. Industrial Production and Standardization
The Bauhaus explored the relationship between design and industrial manufacturing.
The Dessau-Törten Housing Estate demonstrates this particularly well.
The estate was conceived as low-cost housing, and construction was organized around industrial methods. Components were manufactured on site, moved using a small railway system and positioned with cranes. Load-bearing walls used prefabricated hollow slag-concrete blocks, while reinforced concrete beams were used for ceilings.
This illustrates an important Bauhaus principle:
Architecture was not considered only as an artistic composition; construction itself could be reorganized as a design problem.
Architectural Elements of Bauhaus Architecture
Building Form
Bauhaus buildings often use compositions of simple volumes rather than one monumental symmetrical mass.
Different functional areas may be expressed as separate blocks.
This produces:
- Asymmetrical compositions
- Interlocking volumes
- Recesses
- Projections
- Bridges
- Terraces
- Balconies
The result can be visually dynamic despite the absence of conventional ornament.
Façades
Typical façade strategies include:
- Large glazed areas
- Horizontal windows
- Smooth rendered surfaces
- Exposed structural logic
- Repeated openings
- Cantilevered elements
- Strong horizontal and vertical lines
However, not every Bauhaus building has all of these features.
Windows
Windows are treated as architectural components rather than simply decorative openings.
Depending on the project, they can:
- Provide daylight
- Establish façade rhythm
- Express internal functions
- Connect interior and exterior
- Visually separate the façade from the structure
Roofs
Flat roofs became strongly associated with Bauhaus and broader Modernist architecture.
They could provide:
- Roof terraces
- Usable outdoor space
- A clear geometric silhouette
- A simplified building volume
However, the flat roof should not be treated as a mandatory Bauhaus feature.
Its suitability depends on:
- Rainfall
- Drainage
- Waterproofing
- Maintenance
- Thermal performance
- Local construction practice
Materials Used in Bauhaus Architecture
| Material | Architectural Role | Typical Benefit |
|---|---|---|
| Reinforced concrete | Structure, slabs and frames | Structural flexibility |
| Steel | Structural frames and windows | Lightness and slender profiles |
| Glass | Façades and windows | Daylight and transparency |
| Brick | Walls and housing construction | Economical enclosure |
| Plaster/render | Exterior finish | Simple planar surfaces |
| Timber | Interior and selected construction elements | Lightweight and workable |
| Metal tubing | Furniture and fittings | Industrial production and lightweight construction |
The actual material palette varies considerably between projects.
The important principle is not “use steel, glass and concrete everywhere,” but rather select materials according to structural, functional, economic and architectural requirements.
Important Examples of Bauhaus Architecture
1. Fagus Factory
Architects: Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer
Location: Alfeld, Germany
Date: Begun around 1910
The Fagus Factory predates the Bauhaus school and therefore should not technically be called a Bauhaus building.
It is nevertheless essential to the history of Bauhaus architecture because it represents an important stage in Gropius’s development.
UNESCO identifies the factory as a landmark in the development of modern architecture and industrial design. Its large areas of glass and attenuated structural expression anticipated important characteristics of later Modernist architecture. UNESCO also describes the factory as a starting point for the Bauhaus movement.
Architectural lesson: Industrial buildings can generate new architectural forms when their structure, production process and working environment are treated as design problems.
2. Haus am Horn
Location: Weimar, Germany
Date: 1923
Haus am Horn is particularly important because it was the only architecture realized by the Bauhaus in Weimar.
It was constructed as an experimental house for the 1923 Bauhaus exhibition and demonstrated new ideas about contemporary living.
Architectural lesson: A house can be treated as an integrated system in which architecture, furniture, lighting and everyday activities are considered together.
3. Bauhaus Building, Dessau
Architect: Walter Gropius
Location: Dessau, Germany
Date: 1925–1926
This is probably the most recognizable architectural work associated directly with the Bauhaus.
Its different volumes respond to different functions. The workshop wing’s extensive glazing, the connecting bridge and the studio accommodation demonstrate how program, structure, circulation and façade can be integrated.
The building forms part of the UNESCO World Heritage property “Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar, Dessau and Bernau.”
Architectural lesson: Functional differentiation can produce a complex architectural composition without relying on historical ornament.
4. Masters’ Houses
Architect: Walter Gropius
Location: Dessau, Germany
Date: 1925–1926
The Masters’ Houses were built near the Bauhaus Building for teachers and masters.
Their forms consist of interlocking geometric volumes. Large windows, balconies and terraces extend the relationship between interior and exterior. Gropius also explored modular and industrially prefabricated construction, although the technology available at the time limited the extent to which this could be realized.
Architectural lesson: Simple geometric massing can create spatial complexity through the arrangement and intersection of volumes.
5. Dessau-Törten Housing Estate
Architect: Walter Gropius’ office
Location: Dessau, Germany
Date: 1926–1928
Dessau-Törten is particularly important for understanding the social and construction ambitions of Bauhaus architecture.
The estate was developed as low-cost housing during a period of severe housing shortage. It comprised 314 terraced houses, with construction organized around industrial methods and repetitive building processes.
Architectural lesson: Standardization can be used to address affordability and construction efficiency rather than merely creating visual repetition.
6. ADGB Trade Union School, Bernau
Architects: Hannes Meyer, Hans Wittwer and the Bauhaus building department
Location: Bernau, Germany
Date: 1928–1930
The ADGB Trade Union School demonstrates the social and functional direction of Bauhaus architecture under Hannes Meyer.
The school and dormitory complex was designed around educational, residential and communal requirements. UNESCO identifies the building as part of the Bauhaus World Heritage property.
Architectural lesson: Architecture can be organized around users, social programs and collective activities rather than façade composition alone.
Bauhaus and International Style: What Is the Difference?
Bauhaus and International Style are closely related but should not be treated as identical.
| Bauhaus | International Style |
|---|---|
| Specific German school and movement | Broader international architectural tendency |
| 1919–1933 institutional period | Developed during the 1920s and spread internationally |
| Strong emphasis on education and interdisciplinary workshops | Strong emphasis on modern architectural form and construction |
| Connected architecture with craft, art and industrial design | Became a broader language of Modern architecture |
| Associated especially with Gropius, Meyer and Mies | Also associated with architects such as Le Corbusier and others |
| Strong experimental educational component | Primarily an architectural movement/style classification |
The Bauhaus contributed substantially to the development of Modern architecture, but Modernism cannot be reduced to the Bauhaus alone.
Bauhaus and Le Corbusier
Le Corbusier is frequently included in lists of Bauhaus architects, but this is historically misleading.
He was not a Bauhaus director, teacher or student.
His architecture developed through his own intellectual and professional trajectory, although his work was part of the same broader European Modernist environment.
Similarly, buildings such as Villa Savoye should be classified primarily within Le Corbusier’s Modern architecture rather than simply described as Bauhaus architecture.
This distinction improves historical accuracy.
Bauhaus and Mies van der Rohe
Mies became the third and final director of the Bauhaus.
His architectural philosophy emphasized structural order, spatial clarity and disciplined material expression.
However, many famous Mies projects—including the Barcelona Pavilion—belong to his broader architectural career rather than being buildings produced by the Bauhaus institution.
Therefore, a useful classification is:
Mies van der Rohe → Bauhaus director → major Modernist architect
rather than:
Every Mies building → Bauhaus building
Bauhaus and Climate
Bauhaus principles should not be copied mechanically from German examples into every climate.
A useful example is Tel Aviv.
The White City of Tel Aviv represents the broader Modern Movement and includes many buildings influenced by European Modernism. UNESCO emphasizes that these buildings were adapted to local cultural traditions and climatic conditions.
In a warm climate, designers may need to reconsider:
- Solar shading
- Window-to-wall ratio
- Cross ventilation
- Balcony depth
- Thermal mass
- Roof insulation
- Orientation
- External shading
- Daylight control
This demonstrates a deeper principle of Modern architecture:
The architectural idea should be adapted to place rather than copied as an image.
Bauhaus and Sustainability
It is tempting to describe Bauhaus as inherently sustainable because of its emphasis on efficiency and industrial production.
That would be too simplistic.
Bauhaus ideas can contribute to contemporary sustainable design through:
- Efficient planning
- Reduced unnecessary material use
- Design for durability
- Standardization
- Adaptable spaces
- Rational construction
- Integration of environmental performance into planning
But historical Bauhaus buildings were designed before contemporary concepts such as whole-life carbon, operational energy modelling and embodied-carbon assessment became standard architectural practice.
Therefore, Bauhaus should be considered a source of design strategies, not a ready-made sustainability standard.
Bauhaus Influence on Modern Architecture
The Bauhaus had an influence far beyond Germany.
After the school closed in 1933, former Bauhaus teachers and students moved to other countries. Walter Gropius moved to the United States and joined Harvard’s Graduate School of Design in 1937, helping spread Bauhaus educational principles in American architectural education.
The Bauhaus-Archiv also notes that former Bauhaus members helped carry its ideas to countries including the United States, Switzerland, Russia and Israel.
Its influence can be identified in:
- Architectural education
- Industrial design
- Furniture
- Typography
- Graphic design
- Interior design
- Photography
- Housing
- Product design
- Modern architectural practice
Bauhaus in Contemporary Architecture
Contemporary architects continue to use ideas associated with Bauhaus, including:
- Functional planning
- Minimal ornament
- Modular systems
- Industrial production
- Flexible interiors
- Integrated furniture
- Material clarity
- Interdisciplinary design
However, contemporary architecture has also moved beyond the assumptions of the 1920s.
Today, architects must address issues such as:
- Climate resilience
- Universal accessibility
- Embodied carbon
- Energy performance
- Digital fabrication
- Local identity
- Biodiversity
- Circular construction
- Social equity
A contemporary interpretation of Bauhaus is therefore more valuable when it preserves its experimental methodology rather than simply copying its appearance.
Practical Design Lessons from Bauhaus Architecture
For architecture students, the following lessons remain particularly useful.
1. Start with the program
Understand activities before developing the façade.
2. Let circulation influence form
Entrances, corridors, stairs and service routes can generate the building’s organization.
3. Study structure early
Do not treat structural design as something added after the architectural concept.
4. Use materials deliberately
Choose materials according to structural, environmental, economic and experiential requirements.
5. Use geometry to clarify space
Basic geometry can create strong spatial order without decorative complexity.
6. Design for production
Ask how a building can actually be constructed, maintained and adapted.
7. Consider users
A functional building is not simply efficient on paper. It must work for real people.
8. Respond to climate
Large areas of glass, flat roofs and exposed façades require careful environmental analysis.
9. Integrate disciplines
Architecture can benefit from coordination with structural engineering, landscape, interiors, lighting, building services and digital fabrication.
10. Avoid superficial imitation
A white cubic building with large windows is not automatically Bauhaus.
The underlying design logic matters more than the appearance.
Common Misconceptions About Bauhaus Architecture
“Bauhaus means white buildings.”
Not necessarily. White façades are strongly associated with many Bauhaus examples, but colour, material and façade treatment varied between projects.
“Bauhaus means flat roofs.”
Flat roofs are common, but they are not a universal definition.
“Bauhaus architecture is the same as Modern architecture.”
No. Bauhaus was one influential contributor to the broader Modern Movement.
“Le Corbusier was a Bauhaus architect.”
No. He was an important Modernist architect who developed independently within the broader European Modernist context.
“The Barcelona Pavilion is a Bauhaus building.”
Not institutionally. Mies was later a Bauhaus director, but the Barcelona Pavilion was designed for the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition before he became Bauhaus director.
“Bauhaus was only about aesthetics.”
No. Its educational program, workshops, construction experiments and social objectives were fundamental to its identity.
Advantages and Limitations of Bauhaus Principles
| Aspect | Potential Strength | Potential Limitation |
|---|---|---|
| Functional planning | Clear organization | Can become overly deterministic |
| Minimal ornament | Reduced visual clutter | May feel visually austere |
| Industrial production | Efficiency and repetition | Can reduce individuality |
| Standardization | Potential cost savings | May not suit every context |
| Large glazing | Daylight and transparency | Heat gain and glare can be problematic |
| Geometric forms | Strong visual clarity | May become formulaic |
| Material efficiency | Rational construction | Material efficiency depends on actual lifecycle |
| Open planning | Flexibility | Requires careful acoustic and privacy planning |
These are design considerations rather than universal judgments.
Why Bauhaus Still Matters
The lasting importance of Bauhaus is not simply its recognizable visual appearance.
Its deeper contribution was the idea that architecture could be treated as an integrated design discipline.
Architecture, construction, furniture, graphics, materials, technology and human use could be considered together.
That idea remains highly relevant.
Modern architecture has changed dramatically since 1933, but architects still face questions that were central to the Bauhaus:
- How should buildings respond to changing technology?
- How can design become more efficient?
- How should architecture serve users?
- How can industrial production support better design?
- How should architecture respond to social needs?
- How can different design disciplines collaborate?
These questions explain why Bauhaus continues to be studied in architecture schools and design institutions around the world.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is Bauhaus architecture?
Bauhaus architecture refers to architectural ideas associated with the Bauhaus school and its designers. It emphasizes functional planning, geometric clarity, modern construction, industrial materials, interdisciplinary design and reduced ornament.
When was the Bauhaus founded?
The State Bauhaus was founded in Weimar in 1919 by Walter Gropius. The institution later moved to Dessau in 1925 and Berlin in 1932 before closing in 1933.
Who founded the Bauhaus?
German architect Walter Gropius founded the Bauhaus in 1919.
What are the main characteristics of Bauhaus architecture?
Common characteristics include geometric forms, functional planning, minimal ornament, modern materials, large areas of glazing, structural clarity and an interest in industrialized construction.
Who were the three Bauhaus directors?
The three directors were Walter Gropius, Hannes Meyer and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.
Was Bauhaus only an architecture school?
No. Bauhaus was an interdisciplinary school involving architecture, art, craft, product design, typography, photography, theatre and other fields.
When was architecture introduced as a separate Bauhaus department?
A dedicated architecture department was established in 1927 under Hannes Meyer.
What materials are associated with Bauhaus architecture?
Steel, glass and reinforced concrete are particularly associated with Bauhaus and the wider Modern Movement. Brick, plaster and timber were also used in different projects.
Is Bauhaus the same as International Style?
No. Bauhaus was a specific German school and design movement, while International Style describes a broader architectural tendency that developed internationally during the twentieth century.
Does Bauhaus architecture still influence architects?
Yes. Its influence continues through architectural education, functional planning, industrialized construction, product design, interdisciplinary practice and Modernist architectural language. Former Bauhaus members also helped disseminate its ideas internationally after 1933.
Conclusion
Bauhaus architecture represents more than a collection of white cubic buildings with flat roofs and large windows. The Bauhaus was a short-lived but highly influential German school whose ideas connected art, craft, technology, architecture and industrial production.
From the experimental Haus am Horn and Gropius’s Bauhaus Building in Dessau to the Dessau-Törten housing estate and Hannes Meyer’s ADGB Trade Union School, its architecture explored relationships between function, construction, technology, economy and society.
Its influence helped shape twentieth-century Modern architecture and architectural education worldwide. Yet the most useful contemporary lesson is not to reproduce a historical appearance. It is to adopt the Bauhaus habit of questioning how buildings are planned, constructed, occupied and produced.
For today’s architects, the enduring Bauhaus principle is therefore not simply minimal form. It is critical, integrated and experimental design.